The Psychologist guide to… Prisons

Is it time to think differently about how we can develop a deeper comprehension of the complexities of living life locked up? Here are eight psychological findings from studies behind bars…

Focus on poverty's role in the pathway to prison

'Lower-class people are enormously over-represented in prison', states Fathali M. Moghaddam, professor of psychology at Georgetown University. By focusing on personality traits, neurocognitive characteristics and other individual-level features of prisoners, he argues that mainstream psychology has got it wrong. 'It's a causal-reductionist approach', says Moghaddam, 'and it assumes that we, who are psychologically normal, would not behave like them. The pathway to prison often begins with failing schools in poverty-stricken neighbourhoods, contributing to the school-to-prison pipeline. From this perspective, the psychology of the criminal justice system is the psychology of how the poor of all ethnic groups and genders are victimized by the 'justice system' to serve time in prisons.' Moghaddam also stresses that this cycle continues after prisoners have been released because they are disadvantaged when it comes to finding employment and housing, and are less likely to be civically engaged, which then increases the probability that they will return to prison in the future.

Understand why change for prisoners can be more challenging

Although we can all appreciate and understand that change must engage a person's senses of identity, meaning and control, what prisoners also need is an understanding of the role a prison environment needs to play in supporting change. Dr Adrian Needs has worked as a psychologist in high security prisons for over 14 years and focuses on what is needed to support a prisoner to make positive changes in their lives. He argues that even if a prisoner wants to change, if the environment isn't supportive of that change, then it may never happen. 'Offenders need extra support because they have often experienced adverse childhood experiences,' says Needs. 'As neglect and abuse may well have featured in their childhoods, prisoners often find themselves in a 'survival of the fittest' culture in prison. One of the most striking findings in my work, is that quite often a prisoner hasn't developed a coherent and consistent sense of self. Get enough individuals like that in an environment and they create that environment in their own image. Coming from a background typified with anxious attachment, if you put them in a place where their caregivers are erratic or unresponsive, that can only resonate and jangle with early experiences and perhaps trigger the 'couldn't care, I'm self-reliant, sod everyone else perspective of avoidant attached people.'  

Support those who support prisoners

One solution to supporting change in offenders?  Supporting those who oversee the offenders. Needs stresses that it's vital to monitor morale amongst prison officers as they are one of the most important factors when it comes to rehabilitation in prisons. Problems will be heightened, says Needs, 'If a prisoner comes from a classroom straight back to a prison where somebody undermines or even contradicts what they've just been hearing about, [and] they're not given any opportunities to take responsibility and make choices. 

Needs points out that there is a real benefit to encouraging staff to support prisoners during routine interactions, (with problem solving or seeing other people's points of view for example). However, he points out that this approach is often inconsistent simply because staff aren't allocated sufficient time to put effort into doing this, and also that prisoner officers may be lacking in good leadership. 'When I meet some new officers who say, 'I came into the service to make a difference in a person's life, but now all I do is turn keys, or I look at how many prison officers leave the service, it's heartbreaking. If an environment is hostile, you might see some fantastic officers with a real heart for the work and yet their hope erodes. They don't have that level of investment or care from the top.'

And let's not forget the obligation of psychologists working in secure settings to try and acquire a detailed understanding of the daily lived experience of prisoners. As psychology lecturer, Joel Harvey asks, 'could psychologists from time-to-time adopt the role of the 'participant-observer' and be freed from routine assessments and interventions? This could yield useful reflections that might be helpful for practice.'

But as the Governor and Psychology Lead from HMP Whatton point out, the rehabilitative culture of a prison must have a whole prison approach, stating that 'the education, mental health, intellectual disability and physical health services, in addition to wing staff and prisoners have a role to play in practicing a positive rehabilitative environment'.

Boost community and connectedness in rehabilitation

Offering prisoners and ex-offenders an opportunity to build safe relationships and a sense of community are paramount for rehabilitation, says forensic and clinical psychologist, Yvonne Shell. As part of her work, she set up a psychologically informed environment in a home for clients who had lived experience of prisons, homelessness and substance abuse. 'We won money to build a garden at the home, and we created an environment that meant instead of talking about eviction and tenancy rules, we talked about respectful living, relationships and community,' says Shell. She offers a telling example of how, if you have spent a large portion of your life being vigilant, that you may be always ready for something to be taken away; 'we housed a man who was extremely reluctant to come to the project at first; we'd given him a bed pack when he first moved in and when I walked into his room it was still in its package, several months on, rolled up on his bed. He'd been sleeping on the floor rather than using his bed. I asked him why, and he said to me, 'I can't afford to let myself believe that I might one day be able to sleep in a bed. It was a powerful moment'.  

As Needs also points out, 'if you have grown up with a dog-eat-dog mentality, it can set the tone of prison establishment for prisoners and ex-prisoners who may have never learned that there is such a thing as safety and connectedness'.

Have the conversations we are most frightened of

An ongoing challenge in forensic psychology is how to challenge and review our approaches to the most serious, category-A offenders. Terri van Leeson is a psychologist who works with StopSo - a specialist treatment organisation that works with sex offenders and particularly those involved in child sexual abuse. She appreciates how difficult this work can be but also, how vital it is for our society as a whole. 'In treating the abuser you're preventing potential abuse. Sex offenders, particularly those involved in child sexual abuse, trigger disgust, anger and often a desire for revenge. I work with the abused as well as abusers and I will never forget some things I have seen and heard. But, more resources, a change of conversation and a focus on prevention would prevent the suffering of so many children and adults. And the way to ensure prevention is sitting alongside people and giving them the tools to make changes.' 

Recognise the therapeutic role of dogs

We have long known about the therapeutic benefits of working with and being around dogs, but their roles in prison, up until recently, have largely been centred around security (as drugs dogs or on patrols) say Professors Barbara Cooke and Graham Towl. However, a rise in dog training programmes, both here and in the US, points to clear benefits in terms of rehabilitation for prisoners and welfare benefits to the animals. Early studies show, that when prisoners pass selection criteria to work with dogs in a training programme, that their risk of reoffending is often lowered. 'In the first instance', say Cooke and Towl, 'animal contact can be beneficial for many prisoners. In prison culture, where physical touch is often either viewed as violent or sexualised, the touch of a dog can help access some therapeutic aspects and lower stress'. In addition, studies show participation can have a desirable impact on relationships between prisoners and and staff, improve personal and professional skills, and improve behaviour while behind bars. And although more studies are needed, early indications from dog training programmes with prisoners are showing that reconviction has reduced in the first-year post-release.

See the increased risk of suicide and self-harm

Both men and women in prison are more likely to die by suicide compared to people living in the community. Back in 2015, the Harris Review looked at recommendations that could turn the tide of increased risk; including the use of safer cells, the importance of family contact and the creation of a new specialist role focused on rehabilitation. Although the latest figures for death by suicide in prisons show a decrease in the 12 months up to June 2024, self-harm incidents have raised significantly, with a 28% increase from the previous 12 months. 

Risk isn't equal between men and women. Although women only account for under 5% of the prison population in England and Wales, according to The Samaritans, women are 20 times more likely to take their own lives than women in the community, whereas male prisoners are 3.7 times more likely to die by suicide. Psychologist, Chris Millar, argues that it is particularly important to acknowledge the distinctive needs of female offenders, with women in prison being far more likely to have been the victims of more serious offences than the ones they are accused of committing. 

Improve prisoner's mental health to support communities

Unsurprisingly, the prison population have a higher rate of mental health problems than the general population, and this is the case across the world, according to a 2024 study by Professor Seena Fazel from Oxford University. He looked at the global population and found that over 11% of prisoners struggled with depression compared to 6-8% of the general population. At least double the rate of prisoners had PTSD or a psychotic disorder, nearly one in four had an alcohol use disorder and almost 40% had a drug use disorder. 'Given that almost all people in prison will be released at some point, improving their health during imprisonment has the potential to improve the health of the communities to which they will return,' argues Fazel. 

But researcher, Anna Roberts, points out that delivering support in prisons can be particularly challenging, taking in mind that they are already low-trust environments, with clients often having past experiences of abuse, impacting their ability to form relationships and place trust in others. Further challenges may include a prisoner's suspiciousness around confidentiality and existing stigmas around mental health in a prison environment. However, says Roberts, with a creative approach; ensuring the same clinician is seen when offenders leave prison, and that the clinician has prior knowledge of the difficulties faced in prison and the challenges that may be awaiting them on release, mental health support can have a wide range of benefits. For prison employees it may mean that fewer demands are placed on them to manage difficulties associated with undetected mental health problems. Mental health services can also contribute to safer custody within the prison, helping to identify prisoners with risk issues and ensure they receive appropriate support. All in all, this support can only have wider implications for society, argues Roberts. Rather than problems going undetected, mental health issues will be caught earlier which can only reduce the risk of reoffending.

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