Homeworking – what have we learned?

Before the pandemic, remote work was a privilege enjoyed by only a small fraction of workers. This shifted dramatically in early 2020, when public health measures required everyone who could work from home to do so. The number of remote workers in the UK surged to almost 10 million, representing 44 per cent of the workforce (ONS 2020).

We watched this situation unfold with interest due to our long-standing research involvement in homeworking, and also because we (along with our colleagues, family and friends) were experiencing it firsthand. For many years, we have advocated for the benefits of remote working arrangements, providing evidence-based guidance to support its effective implementation. The rapid and widespread shift to home-based working presented a unique opportunity for us and others to observe and analyse this transition in real time, revealing how individuals and organisations adapted, and the challenges and successes they encountered. 

Advantages and challenges

The rapid shift to remote working was intended to curb the spread of illness, but it also revealed advantages for employees and organisations. Many employees welcomed the flexibility and comfort of working from home and the opportunity to create a personalised work environment. Working remotely can offer greater flexibility, allowing employees to achieve a better work-life balance and eliminate the need to commute, saving time, money and energy. Productivity improved for many during this time, due to fewer distractions and more flexible schedules. 

Additionally, the move to remote work accelerated digital transformation, focusing more on performance than physical presence. The concept of online 'presence' has evolved beyond whether one's video camera is on or off, now including real-time or asynchronous communication, contributing through direct interaction or chat features, or simply viewing content without engaging.  

The move to home-based working also presented challenges for some. Organisations with existing remote working arrangements quickly adapted to the changes, with experienced home-workers being better able to manage the transition (Gifford, 2022). Other employees lacked the necessary tools to work remotely and had unsuitable workspaces. Few had the luxury of home offices and people often worked from their kitchen tables, sofas, bedrooms and even their cars. Research conducted early in the pandemic (Parry, 2021) found that some participants initially struggled with home-based working, with merging work and home demands leading to role stress, work-life conflict and exhaustion. Unsurprisingly, other studies revealed that parents faced daily challenges juggling childcare, virtual schooling and work deadlines, significantly impacting their wellbeing (Payne, 2020; Williams et al., 2020). 

Organisations had to quickly adapt to virtual technology, as it was essential to maintain communication. Teams accustomed to in-person interactions often faced difficulties with virtual collaboration, leading to feelings of isolation, and decreased visibility to managers. Our work with child-protection social workers during this challenging time revealed their difficulties in recognising when team members were struggling during online meetings, and then providing the emotional support needed to prevent burnout (Kinman, 2021). 

As social media users, we observed people sharing their experiences and concerns about homeworking immediately after lockdown began. Using netnography (Kozinets, 2015), a method for exploring naturally occurring online discussions, we explored diverse experiences of adapting to homeworking (Travers et al., 2020), focusing on the challenges people faced and the strategies they employed to balance work and domestic life. Over several months, participants shared their experiences through blogs, videos, photos, memes and other media. 

Our findings revealed that this time was marked by contradictions and transitions, with new demands frequently increasing stress and negative emotions, as well as cognitive symptoms such as 'brain fog'. However, many discovered new ways to live and work, finding value in a slower pace and adopting innovative stress-reduction strategies. One participant noted, 'It is very reminiscent of the 1970s when I was growing up. Cooking meals from scratch, baking, hobbies and all of the things I usually don't have time for. My defences against anxiety are going quite well' (p.12). 

Survive or thrive

Over time, remote work became normalised. People and organisations found ways to thrive, or at least survive, in this new environment. They quickly embraced new technologies and innovative methods to maintain team cohesion and collaboration. The British Psychological Society played a key role in this transition. As part of the BPS Working Differently Group, we published a guide offering psychologically informed strategies to establish healthy homeworking conditions (Kinman et al., 2022). The group also created a guide to help professionals regularly exposed to distressing material, such as police officers and social workers, prevent vicarious trauma while working from home (Tehrani et al., 2020). 

For some remote workers, prolonged engagement with video conferencing platforms resulted in mental and physical exhaustion, communication barriers and misunderstandings.  Researchers played a crucial role in identifying the underlying causes of these issues and providing strategies to alleviate what became known as 'Zoom fatigue' (Bailenson, 2021; Ramachandran, 2021). Their guidance included practical recommendations for managing screen time, optimising virtual meeting practices and improving overall digital well-being. Our pre-pandemic research identified key competencies required for effective remote working (Grant & Clarke, 2020; Tramontano et al., 2021) and provided valuable guidance on enhancing digital self-efficacy and resilience for individuals and organisations. 

So, five years on what have we learned from what has been termed the 'Great Homeworking Experiment'? Since the pandemic began, research on the implications of remote work for wellbeing and productivity has surged, with around 18,000 articles indexed in Google Scholar from 2020 to date. However, drawing firm conclusions about the effectiveness of homeworking during a global crisis remains challenging. The mental health and well-being of the UK population also declined during the pandemic (ONS, 2020), making it difficult to isolate the effects of homeworking from those of broader changes, uncertainty, and isolation.

The implications of remote working continue to be widely debated, but there is no compelling evidence that productivity and wellbeing declined among homeworkers during the pandemic (Felstead, 2022). In some circumstances, home-based working can provide significant benefits for wellbeing, productivity and job satisfaction. Organisations with effective homeworking policies may experience increased employee loyalty and a more stable workforce (Choi, 2019). Home-based work can also help reduce the carbon footprint by reducing daily commutes and office energy use, supporting efforts to reduce climate change. Remote work can also enhance employment opportunities for people living in remote areas and caregivers (Schur et al., 2020; Grant et al. 2022). In particular, many disabled and neurodivergent workers have benefited from the widespread move to remote work during lockdown (Grant et al., 2022), levelling the playing field for these workers, reducing the stigma associated with home-based work and confirming its acceptability for employees more generally. 

However, the effectiveness of remote working hinges on various factors, such as employee demographics, living arrangements and caregiving responsibilities, as well as job type, workload and its intensity and the organisational culture. Support from managers and colleagues, social connectedness outside of work and the effective management of work-home boundaries are also important (Chan & Kinman, 2024). Autonomy over working patterns is crucial for successful remote work, as it allows employees to tailor their work environment to their needs. In contrast, rigid policies or limited options can lead to frustration, decreased engagement and burnout (Kossek, 2016).

A 'woke trend'?

Homeworking presents other challenges that need addressing. While the flexibility associated with some types of remote work can improve wellbeing and work-life balance, it can result in enabled intensification (Kelliher & Anderson, 2010). This occurs when the constant connectivity offered by digital tools causes people to work longer and harder than in a traditional office environment, undermining work-life balance and increasing the risk of burnout. Additionally, higher rates of sickness presenteeism have been found among remote workers, attributed to a range of occupational, organisational and individual level factors (CIPD, 2023; Kinman & Grant, 2022). The less visible nature of their work can also make them more likely to push through illness, as symptoms and difficulties are not as apparent to managers and colleagues. 

Although many people returned to office-based work after lockdown restrictions eased, remote working remains popular. The ONS (2022) found that employees consider the main advantages of home-based working include improved work-life balance, fewer distractions, faster task completion and better wellbeing, whereas challenges include difficulties collaborating with others and concerns about job opportunities. Employers' attitudes towards remote working evolved from initial scepticism to greater acceptance as the pandemic progressed. Many leaders now recognise the benefits of remote work, such as increased flexibility and cost savings, and have integrated it into their long-term business strategies. 

Nonetheless, the continuation of remote working has sparked intense public debate, with opinions being highly polarised and politically charged. Our preliminary analysis of post-pandemic news media shows reveals considerable variability in opinions. Some business leaders and commentators argue that remote workers are less diligent and have even labelled it as a 'woke trend', suggesting that physical presence will inevitably boost collaboration, creativity and productivity. Additionally, homeworking has been criticised as an 'economic disaster' for cities, commercial office premises, the construction industry and the service economy, potentially hindering post-pandemic recovery. A recent survey of over 1,300 global leaders found that most support a return to pre-Covid work patterns, with nearly two-thirds expecting a return to the office five days a week by 2026 (KPMG, 2023). Furthermore, 87 per cent of respondents believe that future financial rewards and promotions will be tied to office presence.

These views may overshadow the established benefits of remote working for both organisations and individuals. To encourage workers back to the office, some employers offer incentives like free lunches, while others resort to extreme measures, such as threats of termination. These actions can be counter-productive, as organisations that mandate a wholesale return to office-based work have seen lower engagement, reduced trust, higher turnover and recruitment difficulties. Additionally, an estimated four million employees have changed careers due to the lack of flexible working options (CIPD, 2023). 

The decisions organisations make about working arrangements will have far-reaching consequences. Allowing employees some autonomy over the location and timing of work seems essential for retaining and attracting staff, addressing skills shortages and fostering inclusive workplaces. The future of work is likely to feature flexible, hybrid models that combine the benefits of remote work with the advantages of in-person collaboration. A recent longitudinal study found that hybrid workers were as productive as full-time on-site workers, according to both subjective measures and performance reviews conducted over two years. Hybrid workers also reported better work-life balance, higher job and life satisfaction and had lower attrition rates compared to their counterparts working on site on a full-time basis (Bloom et al., 2024). 

In conclusion, the 'Great Homeworking Experiment' has demonstrated that remote work can be effective under certain conditions. However, maintaining productivity, employee well-being and organisational cohesion requires careful management. To maximise the benefits of remote work while addressing its challenges, it is essential to implement the right tools and strategies. A multi-level approach, comprising organisational, team and individual initiatives, is likely to be most effective. Involving employees in co-designing these initiatives through surveys, focus groups and feedback will help ensure that strategies meet their needs and preferences, thereby enhancing effectiveness and engagement.

• Organisational level: Building the foundation. Organisations should establish an infrastructure and culture that supports flexible working arrangements. This includes establishing clear remote work policies that outline expectations, working hours, communication protocols and performance metrics. Investing in reliable technology, such as collaboration platforms, is crucial. Organisations must also provide training in essential remote working skills, such as virtual communication, time management and using digital tools effectively. Establishing trust between remote workers and line managers will also increase the success of remote working arrangements. It is also crucial to implement initiatives that support the health and work-life balance of remote workers and address the potential risks such as enabled intensification and sickness presenteeism.
• Team level: Fostering collaboration and cohesion. The focus here should be on maintaining communication, collaboration and a sense of belonging. Regular team meetings and one-to-one checks will help people stay connected and engaged. Using collaborative tools and a mix of synchronous and asynchronous communication will accommodate different working styles and time zones. Organising virtual team-building activities will strengthen team relationships and implementing support mechanisms will help those who are struggling. 
• Individual level: Maintaining wellbeing and productivity. Time management tools and clear boundaries between work and personal time can help remote workers maintain focus and prevent burnout. Establishing a dedicated, ergonomic and distraction-free workspace at home is crucial. Taking regular breaks and developing strategies to help switch off from work mode mentally as well as physically will help maintain a healthy work-life balance. Regular communication with colleagues and managers is crucial, and seeking support when needed is vital for sustained well-being and productivity.

Professor Gail Kinman is a Chartered Psychologist and Professor of Occupational Health Psychology at Birkbeck, University of London.

Dr Christine Grant is a Chartered Psychologist, and Associate Professor, Centre for Healthcare Research at Coventry University.

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