A new framework for approaching screen time research with children

Children's screen time is an area of cyberpsychology research that has gained much attention to date. As the rates of early screen use in the home continue to rise with each passing decade, there has also been an increased parental interest in the influence it may have on development (Beatty & Egan, 2020a). 

To best understand this influence, established psychological and developmental theories provide beneficial frameworks for exploring the role of screen time in childhood. These theories illustrate the importance of considering children's developmental stage (Piaget, 1936), socio-cultural influences (Vygotsky, 1978), and ecological factors (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), when assessing the role of screen time in psychological development. 

However, much of the research that has been conducted in the field of screen time during childhood has been noted to be relatively atheoretical (Herodotou, 2018). This has resulted in difficulty in drawing conclusions from the literature findings as, depending on the children's age and wider contextual factors, some studies note screen time to have a negative influence on psychological development (e.g. Tamana et al., 2019), while others show it to have a positive influence (e.g. Fiorini, 2010). 

Further research has also noted there to be no meaningful relationship between screen time and psychological development (e.g. Foster & Watkins, 2010) when elements of developmental theories are considered. This can be seen as somewhat expected given the large influence these factors are known to have on development.

To address this issue within childhood screen time research, a theoretical-driven framework, coined the RECIPE framework, is proposed (see Beatty & Egan, forthcoming). The development of this framework was prompted by the pre-existing classifications and models proposed by researchers in the field who have sought more robust measures of early screen time (e.g. Sweetser et al., 2012; Blum-Ross & Livingstone 2016), and screen time researchers who have noted the importance of understanding causal and reverse-causal effects (e.g. Elson & Ferguson, 2015; Bell et al., 2015) and considering type of screen use when measuring developmental outcomes (e.g. Beatty & Egan, 2020b; Ferguson, 2015; Orben & Przybylski, 2019). 

These contemporary research considerations were then aligned with similar sentiments noted in foundational developmental theories, and both were contextualised to create a framework beneficial for early screen use researchers. 

Following the guidance of both screen use researchers and seminal developmental theories that advocate for the consideration of ecological, individual, and temporal factors within developmental research, the framework encourages researchers to account for the following factors (as opposed to measuring screen time solely) when conducting and/or interpreting screen time research with children.

Reverse-causality: 

The passing of time is an important element of Bronfenbrenner and Evan's (2000) PPCT (Process, Person, Context, Time) model for developmental researchers. Thus, the importance of longitudinal analyses in studies measuring developmental outcomes is warranted to explore causal and reverse-causal effects. 

In the scope of screen use, this entails assessing whether developmental measures (e.g. externalising behaviour) at Time 1 has an influence on screen time at Time 2, in addition to assessing whether screen time at Time 1 has an influence on externalising behaviours at Time 2. This allows for a more holistic understanding of the role of screens in developmental outcomes, as opposed to solely viewing screen time as a driving factor of development. 

Engagement with others: 

According to Vygotsky's (1978) socio-cultural theory, active engagement with members within the social circles of the child is vital for development. Therefore, it is recommended to consider whether the child is mostly engaging in solitary screen time, or whether a guardian, sibling, or friend, is also present to encourage social engagement and talk time during screen use. 

This will allow for a more nuanced understanding of the impact of screen use based on whether it is displacing or supporting opportunities for cognitive and socio-emotional development, through engagement with others. This, along with other elements of the RECIPE framework, also aligns with Blum-Ross and Livingstone's (2016) classification of screen time, which suggests that instead of solely measuring the time that a child spends in front of a screen, what should be additionally measured is the content, context, and the connections facilitated during their screen time.

Content on screen: 

As noted in Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development, a child's stage of development is important to consider when reviewing the influence that factors in their environment (in this case the screen content they are exposed to) have on their development. It is therefore recommended to consider whether the screen time measures within a study classify type of content. For example, is it age/stage appropriate and/or child-directed rather than adult-directed?

Additionally, is it educational in nature or created for entertainment purposes? The separation of content within screen research will therefore allow researchers to draw more conclusive findings on the role of screen use in early development. 

Interaction with the screen: 

This part of the framework can be considered in light of Vygotsky's (1978) socio-cultural theory, where the importance of scaffolding behaviour from a 'More knowledgeable other' (MKO) for development is discussed. 

Scaffolding allows the child to explore their environment and new concepts/ideas with the support of an MKO. When screen content encourages interaction from a child, such as in the form of repeating new words (labelling), showing examples of how to complete a puzzle (modelling), or providing correct answers in re-call activities (correcting), the screen provides feedback and scaffolding behaviours. 

Therefore, interactive screen activities should be separated from their passive counterparts when assessing the influence of screen time. This element of the framework also aligns with the work of researchers Sweetser et al. (2012), who classified screen time by separating screen activities into 'Active' and 'Passive'.

Person-related factors: 

Both Bronfenbrenner's (1993) and Piaget's (1936) work address the importance of considering person-related factors in developmental studies (e.g. child age; gender; temperament). In the case of screen use research, it is important to therefore assess varying developmental stages separately (e.g. the positive influence of video games on spatial awareness abilities in pre-adolescents may not be replicated in younger cohorts who have not yet developed this cognitive ability). 

Measuring children's baseline abilities, predispositions, and temperaments in longitudinal research is another example of considering person-related factors and analysing whether screen use is a contributing factor to development, or whether these factors instead influence screen use. This element of the framework focuses on the individual's unique personal traits that can influence developmental trajectories, and would therefore encourage within-group, in addition to between-group, research approaches. 

Ecological or environmental factors: 

Bronfenbrenner's (1979) ecological systems theory emphasises the importance of considering wider contextual/ecological factors when assessing the influence of a process (i.e. screen time) on development. In this case, it is recommended that environmental factors such as measures of family socio-economic status, parental education levels, and parent-child relationships (among many other factors within the home, school, and the child's wider ecology that can influence development) are also considered when reviewing the influence of screen time. It is also valuable to compare screen time's effect sizes with these wider environmental factors' effect sizes to assess the developmental effect of screens in context. 

Due to the mixed findings within the existing childhood screen time research, discussions on how the use of developmental psychology theories can address some of the methodological/analytical issues present in this field of cyberpsychology research is warranted. 

The RECIPE framework provides six developmental theory-driven points to aid these discussions as well as future explorations of the influence of screen time on developmental outcomes in childhood. The framework also encourages researchers to view screen time through a theoretical lens when conducting and/or interpreting screen time research, so that more conclusive, robust scientific findings related to psychological development can be made. 

Additionally, the framework highlights how many other screen use and contextual factors might be influential for development, rather than just the amount of time a child spends on a screen. Given that many of the research findings in this field inform health organisations, media headlines, and screen use practices in the home, it is hoped that the adoption of this framework by researchers will be equally beneficial for research, policy, and practice.

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